The Cholas

850: The Cholas gained Importance

The territory south, of rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra extending upto Cape Comorin is known as South India or Carnatic region. South India was divided into three kingdoms namely the Cholas, the Chera and the Pandyas of which Cholas was the most famous kingdom. The Cholas occupied present Tanjore and Trincnopoly districts with some adjoining areas. Till eight century the Chola kingdom was very small but gained importance from the ninth century onwards.

The Chola dynasty rose to prominence when in 850 their ruler Vijayalaya defeated the Pallavas and snatched Tanjore from them. Then Tanjore became the capital of the Chola kingdom. In the ninth century Aditya Chola and Parantaka I were the successors of Vijayalaya.

985-1018: Reign of Rajaraja I

The most important ruler of Chola was Rajaraja I. He was one of the greatest kings of the South India and was known as "Rajaraja the Great". Rajaraja I and his able son Rajendra, conquered nearly the whole of the present Madras Presidency. Rajaraja defeated the eastern Chalukyas of Vegi, the Pandyas of Madurai and the Gangas of Mysore. His kingdom extended from Cape in the north to Comorin in the south. He conquered Sri Lanka, the Maldive Islands and Sumatra and other places in Malay Peninsula.

He was not only an able administrator but also a great builder. He built a magnificent temple at Tanjore and which is named as Rajarajeshwar after his name.

1018-1048: Reign of Rajendra Chola

Rajendra Chola was also a able ruler like his father. He even went upto Bengal. He was victorious upto the banks of Ganges. He assumed the title of "Gangaikonda" (the victor of Ganges). On his way he built up a new capital called Gangaikondacholapuram. His greatest achievements was the conquest of Andaman and Nicobar islands. During his reign the kingdom was called the "Golden Age of Cholas." After his death the Chola kingdom began to decline. His successors were weak and so the kingdom started disintegrating.

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Gupta Dynasty

India Before the Guptas

After the downfall of the Kushans in the north and the Satvanahas in the south, no great power rose in India. For nearly a hundred years, India was divided into many independent states and there was continuous struggle among themselves. There were kingdoms and republics, where the republics were ruled by the elected chiefs. In the south, Malwa and Khatiawar were ruled by Rudradaman. In Magadha the Lichhavis rose to prominence. The Nagas established their kingdoms in the northern India whereas the Pallavas established their kingdoms in the Southern India on the ruins of the Satvanaha empire.

Gupta Dynasty

After the Kushans, the Guptas were the most important dynasty. The information about Guptas is known from the archaeological remains, inscriptions and coins. Early in the beginning of the fourth century, a chief called Sri Gupta ruled a small kingdom in Magadha. He was then succeeded by his son Ghatokacha. They were mostly minor rulers in east Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

Reign of Chandragupta I (AD 320-335)

The first famous king of the Gupta dynasty was Ghatokacha's son Chandragupta I. He married Kumaradevi, the daughter of the chief of the Lichhavis. This marriage was a turning point to Chandragupta I. He got Patliputra in dowry from the Lichhavis. From Patliputra, he laid the foundation of his empire and started conquering many neighbouring states with the help of the Lichhavis. He ruled over Magadha (Bihar), Prayaga and Saketa (east Uttar Pradesh). His kingdom extended from the river Ganges to Allahabad. Chandragupta I also got the title of Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) and ruled for about fifteen years.

An important act of Chandragupta I was the holding of an assembly of councillors and members of the royal family at which Prince Samudragupta was formally nominated as the successor of the Gupta empire.

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Ashoka

273 BC: Ashoka coronated as Mauryan king

[273 BC - 232 BC]

Ashoka, the most trusted son of Bindusara and the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, was a brave soldier. He was the most famous of the Mauryan kings and was one of the greatest rulers of India. During his father's reign, he was the governor of Ujjain and Taxila. Having sidelined all claims to the throne from his brothers, Ashoka was coronated as an emperor. Ashoka extended the Maurya Empire to the whole of India except the deep south and the south-east, reaching out even into Central Asia.

261 BC: The Kalinga War

Ashoka succeeded in conquering Kalinga after a bloody war in which 100,000 men were killed, 150,000 injured and thousands were captured and retained as slaves. The sight of the slaughter involved in his conquest deeply distressed Ashoka and deeply affected his mind. This was a turning point in his life. He renounced war and sought peace in Buddha's preachings of love and ahimsa (non-violence). The war also developed in him a hatred for all kinds of violence. So he gave up hunting and slaughtering of animals. He became a strict vegetarian.

Under his reign Buddhism spread to Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, Central Asia, Burma. For propagation of Buddhism, he started inscribing edicts on rocks and pillars at places where people could easily read them. These pillars and rocks are still found in India, spreading their message of love and peace for the last two thousand years. To his ideas he gave the name Dharma. Ashoka died in 232 BC. The capital of Ashoka pillar at Sarnath is adopted by India as its national emblem. The "Dharma Chakra" on the Ashoka Pillar adorns our National Flag.

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Chandragupta Maurya

322 BC: Chandragupta Maurya captures Magadha

Establishes First Indian Empire
[322-298 BC]

Chandragupta, with the help Chanakya (Kautilya), who is also known as the Indian Machiavelli, destroyed the Nanda rulers of Magadha and established the Mauryan empire. It is said that Chanakya met Chandragupta in the Vindhya forest, after being insulted by the Nanda king.

Alexander's invasion prompted Indians to develop a centralised state. Chandragupta declared war and defeated Selucus Nicator, the Macedonian ruler of the Northwestern territories captured by Alexander the Great.

Along with the the astute advice of Chanakya, Chandragupta also seized Punjab, Kabul, Khandahar, Gandhara and Persia from Seluces. Seluces' daughter was married to Chandragupta.

"Selucus failed and had to conclude a treaty with Chandragupta by which he surrendered a large territory including, in the opinion of certain writers, the satrapies of Paropanisadai (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachosia (Qanadahar) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan), in return for 500 elephants. The treaty was probably cemented by a marriage contract. A Greek envoy was accredited to the Court of Pataliputra."

- An Advanced History of India
by RC Majumdar, HC Raychaudhri & Kalinkar Datta

The most important result of this treaty was that Chandragupta's fame spread far and wide and his empire was recognised as a great power in the western countries. The kings of Egypt and Syria sent ambassadors to the Mauryan Court.

Chandragupta's birth shrouded in mystery

Chandragupta Maurya's origins were shrouded in mystery. Having been brought up by peacock tamers, he could be of low caste birth. According to other sources, Chandragupta Maurya was the son of a Nanda prince and a dasi called Mura. It is also possible that Chandragupta was of the Maurya tribe of Kshatriyas.

Mauryan Administration

Maurya empire was the first really large and powerful centralised state in India. It was very well governed, with tempered autocracy at the top and democracy at the city and village levels. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador at the court of Chandragupta Maurya in Pataliputra, had expressed his admiration for the efficient administration of the empire. His book 'Indica' is a collection of comments of other Roman & Greek travelers, and Megasthenes wrote about the prosperity of the Mauryan cities.

He further reported that agriculture was healthy, water abundant and mineral wealth was in plenty. Speaking of the general prosperity, Megasthenes wrote, "the Indians, dressed in bright and rich colors, they liberally used ornaments and gems." He also spoke of the division of society according to occupation and the large number of religious sects and foreigners in the empire.

Chandragupta Maurya's son Bindusara became the new Mauryan Emperor by inheriting an empire including the Hindukush, Narmada, Vindhyas, Mysore, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Baluchistan & Afghanistan.

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Harappa Civilisation

Indus Valley civilizations covering approx 1/2 million miles of Northern Indian subcontinent is the largest ancient civilization in history till now. Since both stone and copper are used it is a chalcolithicivil.The Indus Valley people are highly artistic and skilled.Their chief features include a highly organized urban setup and a strong economy.

The IVC economy is flourishing with extensive cultivation of wheat, barley. The Indus river is used for transport, weights are all very accurate and highly standardized and traders have own personalised seals.

Harappa Civilisation - Fashion

The exact origins of the IVC people is disputed but appears to belong to four ethnic types including the Protoaustioloids, Mediterraneans, Mongoloids and Alpines. People enjoy a comfortable life with a variety of luxuries like ornaments in agate and gold, cosmetics (kajal) and elaborate toys for children. Painting on pottery is skillful and covers various themes while small sculptures in terracotta (animals, toys), soft stone (bearded man) and metal jewels abound.

The greatest artistic skill is in the seals. These engravings of animals, flowers and other symbols have artistic, religious and economic value .

Harappa Civilisation - Town Planning

The city of Mohenjo Daro is testimony to the town planning activities of the IVC. Cities are divided into lower dwellings & the Citadel which houses important buildings. The streets form a grid system and are of modulated width. Bricks of fixed sizes are used for building while stone and wood are also used.Municipal authorities who are responsible for the whole of the valley also regularly maintain a highly efficient drainage system.Buildings in the lower area are rather monotonous, being mainly functional rather than decorative. But many houses are 2 storeyed.

Harappa Civilisation - Architecture

Great Bath: Mohenjo Daro has a sophisticated system of water supply & drainage and its brickwork, is highly functional and the amazing part of it is - that it is completely waterproof. The granaries are also intelligently constructed, with strategic airducts and platform are divided into units.
The Dock at Lothal is to be used for inland & foreign trade.

Harappa Civilisation - Religion

The culture and religion of the IVC overlap and perhaps repetitive symbols such as the pipal leaf and swastika have religious significance. Human dieties include a "proto type of Shiva" and a mother goddess. Animal symbols such as the bull and unicorn and those of tree spirits and water dieties are also common.

These are images from the Harappan culture which existed in the Indus River Valley and which reached its peak around 2600 BC, shortly after the development of urban societies in Mesopotamia and Egypt.  Additional information can be found on the " India and South Asia " Chronology.

   

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Ancient India

The Indus Valley Civilization existed in between 3000-1500 BC while the earlier Kot Diji cultures, of the pre-Indus period, existed in the period of approximately 3300-2800 BC. Harappa and the city of Mohenjo-Daro were the greatest achievements of the Indus valley civilization. These cities are well known for their impressive, organized and regular layout. Then came Aryans who composed these evocative hymns to nature and celebrated life exuberantly referred to themselves as Aryas usually anglicised as Aryan meaning 'noble'. The 6th Century B.C. was the period of Magadh Kingdom. Chandragupta Maurya ousted the oppressive ruler of Magadh to find his own dynasty that existed from 322 - 298 B.C. The most famous Maurya King Ashoka the Great ruled from 273 - 232 B.C over a large kingdom stretching from Kashmir and Peshawar in the North and Northwest to Mysore in the South and Orissa in the East. He after witnessing the carnage at the battle field of Kalinga (269 B.C.) in Orissa, dedicated himself to Dharmma ( righteousness ). In the subsequent centuries, after the Ashoka empire disintegrated, India suffered a series of invasions, and often fell under the spell of foreign rulers - Indo Bactrians, the Sakas and others. After the next 400 years of instability theGuptas established their kingdom. Kalidas, the famous Sanskrit poet and dramatist, author of Abhijnana Shankuntalam, Kumarsambhavam and Meghadutam is believed to have adorned the Gupta court. Also the great mathematicians like Aryabhatta and astronomers like Varahmihir lived during this period. The dazzling wall paintings of the Ajanta caves too are traced back to this era. Cholas, Pandayas and Pallavas ruled over the southern part of India during the medieval period of India’s history. Cholas ruled the territory of Deccan (today the districts of Thanjavur and Tiruchirapally) while the Pandyas reined around present day Tirunelvelli and Madurai. Pallavas of Kanchi rose to prominence in the 4th Century A.D. and ruled unchallenged for about four hundred years. The Nayanar and Alvar saint poets belong to this period. The gemlike shore temples at Mahabalipuram date to this period. The Cholas overthrew the Pallavas were in the 9th Century and regained political primacy in south India. The 15th Century saw the decline of the Pandyas.

HISTORY INDIA : India's History : Timeline of India   3000 - 2600 BC - Harappa Civilisation  1200 - 500 BC - Vedic Era   550 BC - Birth of Mahavira   563 - 483 BC - Sidhartha Gautama, the Buddha   327 BC - The Conquests of Alexander The Great   325 BC - Alexander The Great, still goes on   322 BC - Rise of the Mauryas, Chandragupta   298 BC - Bindusara Coronated   272 BC - Ashoka's Reign   180 BC - Fall of the Mauryas & Rise of the Sungas     30 BC - Rise of the Satvahana Dynasty     50 AD - The Kushans and Kanishkas   320 AD - Chandragupta I establishes the Gupta dynasty   360 AD - Samudragupta conquers the North   380 AD - Chandragupta II comes to power   415 AD - Accession of Kumara Gupta I   467 AD - Skanda Gupta assumes power   892 AD - Rise of the Eastern Chalukyas   985 AD - The Chola Dynasty

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Ramayana

Ramayana Dasharatha, King of Aydohya, has three wives and four sons. Rama is the eldest. His mother is Kaushalya. Bharata is the son of his second and favorite wife, Queen Kaikeyi. The other two are twins, Lakshman and Shatrughna. Rama and Bharata are blue, perhaps indicating they were dark skinned or originally south Indian deities. A sage takes the boys out to train them in archery. Rama has hit an apple hanging from a string.

In a neighboring city the ruler's daughter is named Sita. When it was time for Sita to choose her bridegroom, at a ceremony called a swayamvara, the princes were asked to string a giant bow. No one else can even lift the bow, but as Rama bends it, he not only strings it but breaks it in two. Sita indicates she has chosen Rama as her husband by putting a garland around his neck. The disappointed suitors watch. King Dasharatha, Rama's father, decides it is time to give his throne to his eldest son Rama and retire to the forest to seek moksha. Everyone seems pleased. This plan fulfills the rules of dharma because an eldest son should rule and, if a son can take over one's responsibilities, one's last years may be spent in a search for moksha. In addition, everyone loves Rama. However Rama's step-mother, the king's second wife, is not pleased. She wants her son, Bharata, to rule. Because of an oath Dasharatha had made to her years before, she gets the king to agree to banish Rama for fourteen years and to crown Bharata, even though the king, on bended knee, begs her not to demand such things. Broken-hearted, the devastated king cannot face Rama with the news and Kaikeyi must tell him. Rama, always obedient, is as content to go into banishment in the forest as to be crowned king. Sita convinces Rama that she belongs at his side and his brother Lakshman also begs to accompany them. Rama, Sita and Lakshman set out for the forest. Bharata, whose mother's evil plot has won him the throne, is very upset when he finds out what has happened. Not for a moment does he consider breaking the rules of dharma and becoming king in Rama's place. He goes to Rama's forest retreat and begs Rama to return and rule, but Rama refuses. "We must obey father," Rama says. Bharata then takes Rama's sandals saying, "I will put these on the throne, and every day I shall place the fruits of my work at the feet on my Lord." Embracing Rama, he takes the sandals and returns to Aydohya. Years pass and Rama, Sita and Lakshman are very happy in the forest. Rama and Lakshman destroy the rakshasas (evil creatures) who disturb the sages in their meditations. One day a rakshasa princess tries to seduce Rama, and Lakshmana wounds her and drives her away. She returns to her brother Ravana, the ten-headed ruler of Lanka (Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon), and tells her brother (who has a weakness for beautiful women) about lovely Sita. Ravana devises a plan to abduct Sita. He sends a magical golden deer which Sita desires. Rama and Lakshman go off to hunt the deer, first drawing a protective circle around Sita and warning her she will be safe as long as she does not step outside the circle. As they go off, Ravana (who can change his shape) appears as a holy man begging alms. The moment Sita steps outside the circle to give him food, Ravana grabs her and carries her off the his kingdom in Lanka. Rama is broken-hearted when he returns to the empty hut and cannot find Sita. A band of monkeys offer to help him find Sita. Ravana has carried Sita to his palace in Lanka, but he cannot force her to be his wife so he puts her in a grove and alternately sweet-talks her and threatens her in an attempt to get her to agree to marry him. Sita will not even look at him but thinks only of her beloved Rama. Hanuman, the general of the monkey band can fly since his father is the wind, and Hanuman flies to Lanka and, finding Sita in the grove, comforts her and tells her Rama will soon come and save her. Ravana's men capture Hanuman, and Ravana orders them to wrap Hanuman's tail in cloth and to set it on fire. With his tail burning, Hanuman hops from house-top to house-top, setting Lanka afire. He then flies back to Rama to tell him where Sita is. Rama, Lakshman and the monkey army build a causeway from the tip of India to Lanka and cross over to Lanka. A might battle ensues. Rama kills several of Ravana's brothers and then Rama confronts ten-headed Ravana. (Ravana is known for his wisdom as well as for his weakness for women which may explain why he is pictured as very brainy.) Rama finally kills Ravana. Rama frees Sita. After Sita proves here purity, they return to Ayodhya and Rama becomes king. His rule, Ram-rajya, is an ideal time when everyone does his or her dharma and "fathers never have to light the funeral pyres for their sons."

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Vedas - Upanishads - Puranas

Vedas The oldest literature of Indian thought is the Veda, a collection of religious and philisophical poems and hymns composed over several generations beginning as early as 3000 BC. The Veda was composed in Sanskrit, the intellectual language of both ancient and classical Indian civilizations. Four collections were made, so it is said that there are four Vedas. The four as a group came to be viewed as sacred in Hinduism. Some Vedic hymns and poems address philosophic themes, such as the henotheism that is key to much Hindu theology. Henotheism is the idea that one God takes many different forms, and that although individuals may worship several different gods and goddesses, they really revere but one Supreme Being. There are four Vedas:

The Rig-Veda Its traditional date goes back to 3000 BC, something which the German scholar Max Mueller accepted. As a body of writing, the Rig-Veda (the wisdom of verses) is nothing short of remarkable. It contains 1028 hymns (10,589 verses which are divided into ten mandalas or book-sections) dedicated to thirty-three different gods. The most often addressed gods were nature gods like Indra (rain god; king of heavens), Agni (fire god), Rudra (storm god; the 'howler'), Soma (the draught of immortality, an alcoholic brew). The Sama-Veda The Sama-Veda or the wisdom of chants is basically a collection of samans or chants, derived from the eighth and ninth books of the Rig-Veda. These were meant for the priests who officiated at the rituals of the soma ceremonies. There are painstaking instructions in Sama-Veda about how particular hymns must be sung; to put great emphasis upon sounds of the words of the mantras and the effect they could have on the environment and the person who pronounced them. The Yajur-Veda The Yajur-Veda or the wisdom of sacrifices lays down various sacred invocations (yajurs) which were chanted by a particular sect of priests called adhvaryu. They performed the sacrificial rites. The Veda also outlines various chants which should be sung to pray and pay respects to the various instruments which are involved in the sacrifice. The Atharva-Veda The Atharva-Veda (the wisdom of the Atharvans) is called so because the families of the atharvan sect of the Brahmins have traditionally been credited with the composition of the Vedas. It is a compilation of hymns but lacks the awesome grandeur which makes the Rig-Veda such a breathtaking spiritual experience. Upanishads The term Upanishad means sitting down near; this implies the students sitting down near their Guru to learn the big secret. In the splendid isolation of their forest abodes, the philosophers who composed the Upanishads contemplated upon the various mysteries of life and its creation – whether common, or metaphysical. The answers were however not open to all, but only for select students. The reason for this was simple: not everyone can handle knowledge. The composition of the Upanishads marks a significant and stride forward in the direction of knowing the mystery of earth's creation and one comes tantalizingly close to the answers. Through episodes, commentaries, stories, traditions and dialogue, the Upanishads unfold the fascinating tale of creation, life, the essence of life and of that beyond to the seeker of truth. There is no exact date for the composition of the Upanishads. They continued to be composed over a long period, the core being over 7th -5th centuries BC. The Upanishads were originally called Vedanta, which literally means the conclusion to the Vedas. In the Upanishads, views about Brahman (the Absolute, or God) and atman (one's true self) were proposed. There are 18 principal Upanishads viz: Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad The Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad is widely accepted to be the most important of all Upanishads. It has three khandas or parts. The madhu khanda contemplates on the relationship between the individual and the Universal self. The muni khanda or yajnavalkya is a debate which goes on to give the philosophical backing to the earlier teaching. The khila khanda tackles various rituals of worship and meditation. Chandogya Upanishad This Upanishad is a part of the Sama-Veda (see The Vedas). The name comes from the singer of the songs (samans) who is called Chandoga. The initial chapters of the Upanishad, discuss the ritual of sacrifice. The others debate the origin and profundity of the concept of Om, among other things. Aitareya Upanishad This one forms part of the Rig-Veda. The purpose is to make the reader understand the deeper meaning of sacrifice and to take him away from the outer trappings of the actual act. Taittriya Upanishad A part of the Yajur-Veda, this Upanishad is divided into three sections or vallis. The siksa valli deals with the phonetics of the chants, while the others, brahmananda valli and bhrgu valli deal with self-realization. Isa Upanishad Also called the Isavasya Upanishad, this book deals with the union of God, the world, being and becoming. The stress is on the Absolute in relation with the world (paramesvara). The gist of the teachings is that a person's worldly and otherworldly goals need not necessarily be opposed to each other. Kena Upanishad The name of this Upanishad comes from the first word kena, or by whom. It has two sections of prose and two of poetry. The verses deal with the supreme spirit or the absolute principle (brahmaana) and the prose talks of ishvara (god). The moral of the story is that the knowledge of ishvara reveals the way to self-realization. Katha Upanishad Also called the Kathakopanishad, this Upanishad uses a story (katha) involving a young Brahmin boy called Nachiketa to reveal the truths of this world and the other beyond the veil. Prashna Upanishad Prashna literally means question, and this book is part of the Athrava-Veda. It addresses questions pertaining to the ultimate cause, the power of Om, relation of the supreme to the constituents of the world. Mundaka Upanishad This book also belongs to the Atharva-Veda. The name is derived from 'mund' or to shave, meaning that anyone who understands the Upanishads is s(h)aved from ignorance. This book inscribes the importance of knowing the supreme brahmaana, only by which knowledge can one attain self-realization. Mandukya Upanishad The Mandukya is an exquisite treatise which expounds on the principle of Om and its metaphysical significance in various states of being, waking, dream and the dreamless sleep. The subtlest and most profound of the Upanishads, it is said that this alone will lead one to the path of enlightenment. Svetasvatara Upanishad The name of this Upanishad is after its teacher. It comments on the unity of the souls and the world in one all-encompassing reality. The concept of there being one god is also talked about here. It is dedicated to Rudra, the storm god. Kausitaki Brahmana Upanishad The Upanishad has come down to us in bits here and pieces there. The core of the text is dedicated to illustrating the fact that the path to release is through knowledge. Maitri Upanishad This is a comparatively later Upanishad as it has references to the Trinity of Hindu Gods (Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma) which is a later development, and plus references to the world being illusory in character reflects Buddhist influence. Subala Upanishad Belonging to the Yajur-Veda, this Upanishad puts down a dialogue between the sage Subala and Brahma the creator of the Hindu Trinity of Gods. It discusses the universe and the absolute. Jabala Upanishad Belonging to the Athrava-Veda this Upanishad addresses some questions pertaining to renunciation. Paingala Upanishad The Paingala is again a dialog, this between Yajnavalkya, the sage mentioned the Brhad-aranyaka's muni khanda and Paingala, a student of his. It discusses meditation and its effects. Kaivalya Upanishad This Upanishad delves into the state of kaivalya or being alone. Vajrasucika Upanishad Belonging to the Sama-Veda the Vajrasucika reflects on the nature of the supreme being. The core of the teachings of the Upanishads is summed up in three words: tat tvam as… you are that. Puranas The Puranas contain the essence of the Vedas. They were written to impress the teachings of the Vedas onto the masses and to generate devotion to God in them. They have five characteristics: history, cosmology (with symbolical illustrations of philosophical principles), secondary creation, genealogy of kings, and Manvantaras (the period of Manu's rule consisting of 71 celestial yugas). The Puranas were meant, not for the scholars, but for ordinary people who could not understand high philosophy and could not study the Vedas. There is an emphasis on the worship of Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver), Shiva (the destroyer), Surya (the Sun God), Ganesha (the elephant headed god known to be the remover of obstructions ), and Shakti (the goddess). All the Puranas belong to the class of Suhrit-Sammitas, or the Friendly Treatises, while the Vedas are called Prabhu-Sammitas or Commanding Treatises with great authority. There are 18 Puranas : Brahma Purana, Padma Purana, Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana or Siva Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Narada Purana, Markandeya Purana, Agni Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Linga Purana, Varaha Purana, Skanda Purana, Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana, Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana. Of these, six are Sattvic Puranas glorifying Vishnu; six are Rajasic, glorifying Brahma; six are Tamasic, glorifying Siva. Vyasa, the son of Rishi Parasara, is said to be the author of them all.

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Hinduism It is not easy to define Hinduism, for it is more than a religion in the Western sense, as our Ancient History Guide sees it. Also known to practitioners as Sanatana Dharma, which means everlasting or eternal religion/truth/rule, Hinduism can best be defined as a way of life based on the teachings of ancient sages and scriptures like the Vedas and the Upanishads. The word dharma connotes "that which supports the universe" and effectively means any path of spiritual discipline which leads to God. Hindu Dharma, as one scholar analogizes, can be compared to a fruit tree, with its roots representing the Vedas and the Upanishads, the thick trunk symbolizing the spiritual experiences of numerous sages and saints, its branches representing various theological traditions, and the fruit itself, in different shapes and sizes, symbolizing various sects and subsects. However, the concept of Hinduism defies a definite definition because of its uniqueness.

Hinduism does not have any one founder, and any one core doctrine to which controversies can be referred to for resolution. There is also no point in time when it could be said to have begun. It does not require its adherents to accept any one idea, and thus is cultural, not creedal, with a history contemporaneous with the peoples with which it is associated. It is also marked by an attitude which seems to accommodate religious and cultural perspectives other than one's own, and so is characterized by a rich variety of ideas and practices resulting in what appears as a multiplicity of religions under one term 'Hinduism'. Hinduism is perhaps the only religious tradition that is so diverse in its theoretical premises and practical expressions that it is like a compilation of religions. According to philosopher Jeaneane Fowler, Hinduism can never be neatly slotted into any particular belief system — monism, theism, monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, panentheism — for all these systems are reflected in its many facets. According to historians, the origin of Hinduism dates back to 5000 or more years. The word "Hindu" is derived from the name of river Indus, which flows through northern India. In ancient times the river was called the 'Sindhu', but the Persians who migrated to India called the river 'Hindu', the land 'Hindustan' and its inhabitants 'Hindus'. Thus the religion followed by the Hindus came to be known as 'Hinduism'. It is generally believed that the basic tenets of Hinduism was brought to India by the Aryans who settled along the banks of the Indus river about 2000 BC. According to one scholar, the evolution of Hinduism may be divided into three periods: the ancient (6500 BCE-1000 AD), the medieval (1000-1800 AD), and the modern (1800 AD to present). Hinduism is commonly thought to be the oldest religion in the history of human civilization. Hinduism lacks any unified system of beliefs and ideas. It is a phenomenon and represents a broad spectrum of beliefs and practices which on one hand are akin to paganism, pantheism and the like, and on the other very profound, abstract, metaphysical speculations. Since religion and culture are nearly interchangeable terms in Hinduism, emotive expressions like 'bhakti' (devotion) or 'dharma' (what is right) and 'yoga' (discipline) are used to depict essential aspects of the religion. Hinduism believes in idol worship, casteism, reincarnation, 'karma', 'dharma' and 'moksha'. Some moral ideals in Hinduism include non-violence, truthfulness, friendship, compassion, fortitude, self-control, purity and generosity. Two types of sacred writings constitute the Hindu scriptures: heard (sruti) and memorized (smriti). Sruti literature refers to the habit of ancient Hindu saints who led a solitary life in the woods, where they developed a consciousness that enabled them to 'hear' or cognize the truths of the universe. Sruti literature are of two parts: the Vedas and Upanishads. There are four Vedas: The Rig Veda -"Royal Knowledge" The Sama Veda - "Knowledge of Chants" The Yajur Veda - "Knowledge of Sacrificial Rituals" The Atharva Veda - "Knowledge of Incarnations" There are 108 extant Upanishads, of which 10 are most important: Isa, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taitiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka. Smriti Literature refers to 'memorized' or 'remembered' poetry and epics. They are more popular with Hindus, because they are easy to understand, explains universal truths through symbolism and mythology, and contain some of the most beautiful and exciting stories in the history of religion world literature. The three most important of Smriti literature are: The Bhagavad Gita - The most well known of the Hindu scriptures, called the "Song of the Adorable One", written about the 2nd century BC and forms the sixth part of Mahabharata. It contains some of the most brilliant theological lessons about the nature of God and of life ever written. The Mahabharata - The world's longest epic poem written about 9th century BC, and deals with the power struggle between the Pandava and the Kaurava families, with an intertwining of numerous episodes that make up life. The Ramayana - The most popular of Hindu epics, composed by Valmiki around 4th or 2nd centuries BC with later additions up to about 300 CE. It depicts the story of the royal couple of Ayodha - Ram and Sita and a host of other characters and their exploits.

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Hindu Festivals

Hindu Festivals

MAKAR SANKRANTI (January)

Makar Sankranti usually falls on 14th of January every year. This festival is one of the many festivals which have been celebrated since the vedic period. On this day the sun comes across the north of equator. On this very day it is believed that 'the morning' of the deities commences. This particular period, when the sun is positioned across the north of equator has been considered as an 'accomplishment giving period' by the scholars. Even Astrology endorses this fact and this period is supposed to be auspicious for the various activities like construction of the houses, performance of oblations, establishment of the deities etc. This period is considered to be so auspicious, that if a person dies during this period he is supposed to attain liberation. The sun's position towards the north of equator signifies the arrival of spring season and the end of winter season. The day starts to prolong. On this occasion, all the pilgrimage sites & holy rivers are the thronged by the devotees.

At Ganga-Sagar an inland emerges by the grace of deity Varun, which remains for a week and ultimately gets submerged into the sea. The scriptures narrate about the greatness of taking a holy dip on the occasion of Makar Sankranti. After taking the bath it is customary to eat food articles prepared from sesame seeds and 'Kichadi' (rice and pulse cooked together). Making donation of sesame seed is also considered as very auspicious. Makar Sankranti usually comes in the Hindu month of 'Magha'. The term 'Magha' is derived from the sanskrit word 'Magh' which means wealth i.e. gold, silver, apparels, ornaments etc. This month has been named as 'Magha' because it is considered to be the month of making donations of the above mentioned things. In Punjab people celebrate it as 'Lohadi' a day before 'Makar-Sanskranti'. On this day the people of Punjab offer maize, 'Revadi' (prepared from sesame seeds), in the fire, amidst the singing of folk songs. In Gujarat and Maharashtra people decorate their houses with 'Rangoli'. They eat food prepared from sesame seeds and jaggery. There is a saying in Maharashtra connected with this day which goes as follows- 'TIL GUD GHYA ANI GARUD GARUD BOLA.' Meaning; (Take sesame and jaggery and speak sweetly.) Women of Maharashtra attired in beautiful apparels visit the houses of their relatives and friends, where they are welcomed with 'Kheel' and 'Porridge'. The hosts honour them by applying 'Kumkum'. The festival of Makar Sanskranti is celebrated as 'Pongal' in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. On this occasion people decorate the idols of deities. Cultural programmes are organised to mark this occasion. 'Pongal' (Khichadi) is offered to the deities and then it is taken as prasadam. During the ancient time, the third stage of the study of the Vedas commenced on this day. People used to send their wards to the 'Gurukula' after performing the sacred thread ceremony of children. On Vasant Panchami, which falls some days later, the worship of 'Saraswati' signifies the importance of the commencement of new learning session. In the south, people still continue with the tradition of initiating their children into the study of Vedas, on this day. VASANT PANCHAMI (January) On the fifth day of the Shukla Paksha (Waxing moon of fortnightly) of the Magha month, coming of spring is celebrated. This is known as Vasant Panchami. During this flowering and blossoming season one can listen distinctly to the kooing of the Koel (bird) and the entire ambiance becomes very beautiful. On this day one should dress up in beautiful attire and worship Lord Vishnu. On this day Brahmins should be offered food. Pitru-Tarpan (liberation of deceased ancestors) can also be performed on this day. One can also worship Goddess Saraswati.In the coming of Spring, God of Love(Kamadev) and his wife Rati are also prayed and worshipped on this auspicious occasion. It is on this day when Abeer and Gulal are played with and songs of Holi are sung till Phalgun Poornima.All rejoice while celebrating this auspicious occasion. HOLI (March) Holi, which falls on the full moon day, in the Hindu month of 'Falgun', is the last major festival of the year. People celebrate this festival with enthusiasm and without making any discrimination between rich and poor, high and low. It is very difficult to state, when this festival started, but the name of 'holikotsav' had been mentioned even in the Vedas and the Puranas. So 'holikotsav' has been celebrated since the Vedic period. During the ancient time, oblation was offered to the sacred fire of the Holi, amidst the chanting of the Vedic mantra.This mantra was chanted with the specific wish of destruction of the demon. On this very day Vaishwadev oblation commenced in which offerings of wheat, gram and Oat were made to the sacrificial fire. In Sanskrit language, the fried cereals are called 'Holka'. Holikotsav is named after it. Even today we continue with the tradition of offering wheat and oat into the Holika fire. In due course of time, the form of this festival got transformed, due to numerous social influences and ultimately ended up in the form as we celebrate it today. According to the Narad Puran, this day is celebrated in the memory of Prahlad's victory and the defeat of his father's-sister 'Holika'. Hiranyakashipu - the father of Prahlad has instructed his sister Holika to sit in the burning fire with Prahlad in lap. She was blessed a boon, as a result of which no fire could burn her. But the opposite happened, Prahlad survived and Holika was charred to death. Thus 'holi' is celebrated to commemorate the victory of virtue over evil. There is also an another incident related with the celebration of 'Holi', which has been mentioned in the 'Bhavishya Puran'. During the reign of king Raghu, people were tormented by a giant named 'Dhundha'. Sage Vashishth advised them to terrorize her by burning fire at as many places as they could. Thus they got rid of the giant. Even today we see children making mischief on the day of 'holikotsav. The mention of this festival in Jaimini Mimansa goes to prove its antiquity. A stone incription belonging to 300 BC found at Ramgarh in the province of Vindhya, had mentioned of Holikotsav on it. King Harsha has mentioned about holikotsav in his work Ratnavali that was written during the 7th century. The famous Muslim tourist - Ulbaruni too has mentioned about holikotsav in his historical memories. Other Muslim writes of that period have mentioned, that holikotsav were not only celebrated by the Hindus but also by the Muslims. Thus we see that the tradition of celebrating holikotsav has been continuing since Vedic period without any hindrance. This festival unites all the Indian's in a tremendous way. Holi is the festival of the colours. But very few people are aware of the impacts the colours have on our body and on our health. Western-Physicians and doctors believe that for a healthy body, colours too have an important place besides the other vital elements. Deficiency of a particular colour in our body causes ailment, which can be cured only after supplementing the body with that particular colour. On Holi, people after enjoying themselves with the colours, take bath and then go to meet their relatives and friends. Discrimination is not made even with the enemy. The concept of enemy does not exist on this day. There is no difference between rich and poor on this day. The concept of New Year (Samvatsar) varies in the different provinces of our country. In some provinces, the month commences from the 'Krishna-Paksha' on the other hand in some provinces it commences from 'Shukla-Paksha'. For the former the year ends on 'Purnima' of the month of Phalgun. The new years begins next day - Chaitra, 1st day of the Krishna Paksha. For them on this day the last year has died. For this reason in some provinces like Bihar and UP. Holika dahan is also called 'Samvatsar dahan? On this day all the bitterness and evil memories of the last year are burnt in the fire and the New Year is begun with a celebration. RAM NAVAMI (April) Ram Navami is celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra and on the ninth day of the bright lunar phase, to commemorate the birth anniversary of Sri Ram. The incarnation of Sri Ram materialized on this very day, to show the path of virtuosity and truth to the mankind, who had lost its way by establishing the high standards of moral values and ideals. Sri Ram - the founder of Ram Rajya faced al the problems of life with courage and righteousness. Ramayan contains descriptions of all types of relation, which a man normally has in his life, like teacher-student, mother-father, Brother-sister in law, Husband-wife, friend-enemy, master-servant etc. The incidents described in Ramayan contain such high moral-value and ideals that they seems unbelievable and imaginary, but the fact remains that they are undoubtedly true. Ram Navami is our national and cultural festival. In the present time, when there is a tendency of greed, selfishness prevalent among the common people, when the relation between family members has reached its lowest ebb, Ram Navami inspires us to reach that highest & idealistic pedestal, which was occupied by Sri Ram. HANUMAN JAYANTI (April) The birthday of Hanuman - the supreme devotee of Sri Ram is celebrated on full moon day of the bright lunar phase, in the Hindu month of Chaitra. The most powerful and valiant Hanuman who was also the gem of the scholars has been an inspiration for all of us since time immemorial. Because of his phenomenal strength and power, Hanuman is revered by the wrestlers. Hanuman's bravery is unmatched. This is the reason why government of India has named the bravery award on him i.e. Mahavir-Chakra. Being inspired by Hanuman's phenomenal valiance, the supreme warrior Arjun, had established him on the flag of his chariot. Hanuman is not only brave but he is also an example of supreme loyality and faithfulness, which he had towards his master - Sri Ram. If a man worships Hanuman and takes his refuge, then he will be able to have darshan of Sri Ram in no time - just like Tulsidas. When Sri Ram met Hanuman for the first time he was very impressed by his knowledge. He told Laxman-"O Laxman, it seems this person (Hanuman) has thoroughly studied the grammar. That is the reason why he did not pronounce incorrectly even a single word, during such a long conversation with me." Hanuman's high degree of knowledge can be understood from the following incident. Once Sri Ram asked Hanuman as to who he was. Hanuman replied by saying- "If you consider me just as the possessor of my physical body, then I am your servant. If you consider me as a soul then I am your 'Ansha' (part). My belief is based on the fact that my existence is not different from you in any way." On Hanuman Jayanti the various games which are based on strength and power are organised, along with the traditional worship of Hanuman. People are made to understand the phenomenal character of Hanuman - the unmatched warrior of the Indian history, so that they are able to serve the country with fearlessness and without considering their own self-interest. Hanuman's virtuosity, valiance, discipline and celibacy can prove to be an asset for any society or country. RATH YATRA (July) Rath yatra is observed on Aashad Shukla Dwitiya. On this day in Pushya Nakshatra a chariot of Subhadra and the Lord is paraded. This festival is celebrated in many parts of India, but the pomp and gaiety in Jagannathpuri is definitely worth watching. JagannathPuri is one of the 4 most important religious places in India. Here we have even the Govardhan Peeth established by Shankaracarya. The main deity to be worshipped here is Lord Jagannath and this deity is the main centre of attraction. One can see a lot of crowd on this day. People from every corner of India come to see the idols of the Gods being paraded and seek their blessings. The chariot of Lord Jagannath is 45 feet tall, 35 feet long and 36 feet bride, 16 wheel, 6 feet diameters are fixed to the chariot. The chariot of Balbhadra 44 feet tall and has 14 wheels. The chariot of Subhadra is 43 feet tall and it has 12 wheels. Every year new chariot is built. 4200 people pull the chariot and other than these others men-women devotees do pull these chariots. The Lord stays for 3 days in Lanakpur there itself he meets Goddess Laxmi. After this the Lord return backs and is placed on his original position. RAKSHA BANDHAN (August) Among the Indian festivals, Raksha Bandhan is considered as a very important and historical festival. According to the Bhavishya Puran. Sachi - the wife of Indra had tied a protection -thread on the wrist of Indra, which had been purified by the mantras. This protection thread had made Indra invincible from his enemies. This very protection thread had also enabled Indra to defeat his enemies. Since then, this great festival has been celebrated every year, on the full moon day, in the Hindu month of Shravan, reminding us of great tradition. Hindus have been progressing steadily on the path of life, by attaining neo energy, no faith and neo-strength. According to the Bhavishya Puran SARVAROGOPSHAMANAM SARVASHUBH VINASHANAM; SAKRITKRITEBDAMEKAM YEN RAKSHA KRITA BHAVET Meaning - The protection thread worn on this festival, destroys all the diseases and inauspiciousness. The person gets protected for the whole year. YEN BADHDO BALI RAJA DANVENDRO MAHABALAH TEN TWAM PRATIBADHNAMI RAKSHE! MA CHAL! MA CHAL! Meaning: The objective for which, the king of the demons - Mahabali had been tied with the protection thread, in the same way, O protection thread, I am tying you for the same objective. (While making donation to lord Vishnu-incarnated as Vaman, king Bali was not affected the least i.e. he donated everything without any hesitation, because he had tied protection thread on his self.) Sacred Festival of the Brothers & Sisters During the time of foreign-rule, when the Hindu religion was passing through its darkest phase - when the double-edged darkest phase - when the double-edged swords of the Mughal were causing destruction to our civilization and culture by dishonouring our mothers and sisters, then it was only Rakshabandhan which boosted the morale of the Hindus by enthusing new inspiration. Raksha bandhan, which is commonly known as Rakhi, was the symbol of love between the husband and wife during the ancient time. The same Rakhi turned into a symbol of love-bond between the brother and a sister in due course of time. During the Mughal period, Rajput women when threatened by the aggressors, requested for help from their Rajput brother to save their honour, by sending Rakhi to them. These brave Rajput men felt honoured and even gave up their lives to safeguard the honour of their sisters. These 'raw-threads' used to enthuse tremendous enthusiasm and power as soon as they got tied on the wrists of the brothers. This tradition is still continuing and Rakshabandhan is celebrated with great enthusiasm by brothers and sisters. GANESH CHATURTHI (September) Ganesh Chaturthi is known as Bhadrapada Shukla Chaturthi. Early in the morning after completing ones ablutions one should make a beautiful platform and place the idol of Ganeshji on it. One should worship the idol in the sixteen ceremonial methods/ steps and should sing devotional songs. One should offer Laddoos to Ganeshji on this occasssion. After the worship (pooja) one should offer Brahmins Laddoos and donate gifts etc. At night after moon rise one should worship the moon god and then offer water (Arghya). After this the Brahmins should be offered food and after this one should partake laddoos. After giving Brahmins gifts one should discharge the idol of Ganeshji in the sea. In Maharashtra the festival of Ganeshji Chaturthi is celebrated with pomp and gaiety. Here the idol of Ganeshji is kept for 1½, 3, 5, 7 or 9 days and is worshipped according to the scriptures. One who worships the idols for many days accordingly does the Visarjan (discharge). The day of the final discharge (Visarjan) is Anant Chaturdashi. VIJAY DASHAMI (September) Vijayadashami is considered to be an auspicious day for the Indian householder, on which he worships, protects and preserves 'Shakti' (power). By worshipping the 'Shakti' according tot the methods as written in the scriptures, on these nine-days (Navratra) the householders attains the threefold powers i.e. physical, mental and spiritual, which helps him to progress in life without any difficulty. Some nine lakh years ago Sri Ram had proceeded on his mission of killing Ravan, after attaining powers by the worship of goddess Shakti for nine days. The world knows that Sri Ram became victorious in this battle and Ravan was killed along with his whole clan. The victory of Sri Ram over Ravan symbolises the victory of virtuosity and morality over unrighteousness and immorality the victory of justice over injustice. Hindus remember the great deeds of Sri Ram even today in the form of Ramleela and by burning the effigies of Ravan. By burning the effigies of Ravan the Hindus show to the world that no matter how powerful an immortal person is, it gets destroyed ultimately. AASHVINASYA SITE PAKSHE DASHAMYAM TARKODAYE; SA KALO VIJAYO GYEYAH SARVAKARYARTHSIDHDAYE. SHRAVANARKSHE TU PUURNAAYAM KAKUTSTHAH PRASTHITIYATAH ULLANGHAYEYUH TADDINARKSHE TATO NARAH. Meaning: The auspicious time (Muhurta) - Vijay occurs on the tenth day of the bright half of the lunar month in the Hindu month of Ashwin. This auspicious time gives great accomplishment. Because Sri Ram proceeded on his mission to defeat Ravan on the tenth (Purnatithi) and which combined with the constellation of 'Shravan'. This day is considered to be so auspicious that a person can even cross all the limits to achieve success in any field. DIPAVALI Dipavali has a special place among all the festivals of India. The enthusiasm with which this festival is celebrated is not visible in other festivals. Although Dipavali is our most ancient festival, but it's greatest characteristic is, that it is not related with any specific caste, class or province, rather it is an universal festival. Indian's celebrate this festival in all types of circumstances - during peace time, during war time, in their joyous times in their sorrowful time etc. Though the festival of Dipavali has undergone some changes, in due course of time, yet it has continued to be celebrated since the time immemorial. Even the 'storms' of the aggressors could not extinguish the lamp of Dipavali. People make preparation for Dipavali, weeks ahead by cleaning their households. On the last day of the dark half of a lunar month, and in the Hindu month of Kartik innumerable lamps illuminate the dark night. Women, children, youth, old people worship goddess Laxmi with devotion. They request goddess Laxmi to visit their homes. People put on new clothes. They also purchase new utensils. The business community commences their new year on this day by worshipping Ganesh an Laxmi and maintaining new account books. It is difficult to state that, since when the festival of Dipavali has been celebrating in its present form. In our Country whose economy is based on agriculture, this festival was believed to be started as the celebration of 'rituparva' thousands of years ago. By this time the harvest of crops were complete. As a result the people had not to worry about food for the rest of year. This joys of their reflected ion the illumination of countless lamps. In due course of time, numerous historical incidents got connected with this festival. There are many tales in the Puranas related with this festival. There are difference of opinions in the Skand, Padm and Bhavish Puran, regarding the origin of Dipavali. Somewhere it is described, that this festival started being celebrated in joy, become King Prithu had successfully exploited the means for extracting crops and wealth from the earth. At other places it has been described that on this day, goddess Laxmi manifested herself while the ocean was being churned by the deities and the demon. Some are of the opinion that Lord Krishna has killed the demon Narakasura on the fourteenth day of the dark half of the lunar month, and liberated 16000 princesses kept under his captive. So the next day which was the last day of the dark half of a lunar month (Amavasya), people which was the last day of the dark half of a lunar month (Amavasya), people celebrated diwali to show their joy and happiness. According to the Mahabharat when the Pandavas returned from exile, people decorated their houses and made celebrations. According to some hearsay's, people celebrated by illuminating their houses on the occasion of Vikramaditya becoming an emperor. So it becomes clear, that people generally worshipped Laxmi-Narayan to show their indebtedness, for being blessed with prosperity. In due of time, many historical events too got connected with it. There is an interesting reason behind the worship of goddess Laxmi on Dipavali. According to Sanatkumar-Sanhita, once Bali - the king of demon had the whole world under his control. He put all the deities including goddess Laxmi, in the prison. In the absence of Laxmi, all the activities related with oblation came to a halt. On the request of the deities, lord Vishnu in his incarnation of Vaman, free Laxmi from Bali's captive. People expressed their joys by illuminating their houses with burning lamps. Laxmi was especially worshipped as she had been freed after a long period of captivity. This way the worship of goddess Laxmi became a tradition which is sill being continued. BHAIYYA DOOJ (October) The festival of brother and sister Bhaiyya Dooj is celebrated on the 2nd day of the Shukla Paksha of the Caitra Month, and the 2nd day of Shukla Paksha of the Kartik Month. On this day before afternoon itself worship is performed. Those women who cannot move out of their homes they near the door of the house make two small idols of ruddle which indicate brother and sister in law and worship the idols with rice (parched), a mixture of lime and turmeric (roli) and offer food to the idols. After this, the door itself is worshipped and outside just below the doorsteps, at the entrance and altar (Square shaped) of Gobar (cow dung) is made. On the altar at every cornet there is one idol of cow dung placed and in between one idol is placed, Domestic commodities such as Hearth, grind mill, the pots are made of cow dung are decorated and placed every where around. At the doorstep the idol of brother and sister-in-law are made. Firstly parched grains, mixture of lime and turmeric, incense offerings are offered and the altar is worshipped and after that the idols kept at the doorstep one worshipped and then a story is told, After the story is over the women with the pestle say. Who ever are jealous of my brother and are with intention to do bad, I will destroy his fall with this pestle. NAVRATRI (FESTIVAL OF NINE DAYS) (October) The whole delusions of the world consists of nine elements - 'Panchamahabhurt' (the fine basic & fundamental elements from which the matter is made.) and four 'Antahkaran' (four types of consciousness). According to the Sadhakas, these nine elements symbolize the nine forms of 'Shakti' or goddess Durga. This Shakti prevails in the whole world. The same Shakti is known as 'Mahakali' (which symbolises physical, strength & power), 'Mahalaxmi' (which symbolises materialistic wealth and prosperity), and 'Mahasaraswati' (which symbolises mental). Eighteen days have been fined as the most auspicious days, for the worship of three forms of Durga. Out of these eighteen days, nine days come in the Hindu month of 'Vasant' (spring) and the remaining nine-days fall in the Hindu month of 'Sharad' (Autumn). This is the reason behind the importance of the number nine of the famous Navratras.' KANYA PUJAN (Worship of the girl child) During the Navratra especially on the eighth day and ninth day, worship of small girl-child is customary. The girl child is worshipped with complete devotion, after purifying them by the chanting of mantras and he is made to seat on a special pedestal. She is worshipped by offering 'akshat' (rice grains) and by burning incense sticks. She is worshipped because, according to the philosophy of 'Striyah Samastastava Devi Bhedah', women symbolize 'Mahamaya' (The goddess Durga). Even among these a girl child is considered to be the purest, because of her innocence. If the worshipper is desirous of acquiring knowledge then he should worship a Brahmin girl child. If he is desirous of acquiring power, then he should worship a Kshatriya-girl child. Similarly if he is desirous of acquiring wealth and prosperity, then a girl child belonging to a Vaishya family should be worshipped by him. If a person is desirous of attaining Tantrik-power, Mohan (hypnotizing), Uchchatan (causing hurdle in the path of other success), then he should worship a shudra-girl-child. This way a devotee of mother Jagdamba, contributes his lot in the social integration, by having a provision of girl child worship of all the four castes. Scientific Explanations The festival of Vijayadashami, nourishes all the aspects of human life including religiousness, the aspects, spiritual aspects and it also provide us with an opportunity for entertainment. No other festival has such a combination of religion and politics, art and culture, as the festival of Vijayadashmi. When a devotee wakes up in the morning and takes a bath in a nearby river or pond, then worships goddess 'Dashahara', it helps him to destroy al the ten forms of sin. This festival also in an occasion for family gets together. After the worship of goddess Durga, receipt of 'Prasad', strengthen the physical aspect of the devotee. Watching the Ramleela in the evening gives mental nourishment. It also inspires us to follow the ideal path of Sri Ram. The burning of the effigy of Ravan warns us against evil conducts. Ravan - who was killed by Sri Ram, some nine lakh years ago also strengthens our belief, that no matter how powerful a sinful person becomes, he is ultimately doomed to destruction. The scriptural command for 'Seemolanghan (not being tied down by the boundary) symbolizes progress. It inspires a man to constantly try to make progress and not get tied down by restrictions. A provision of tree-worship is also made on Dashahara. This signifies the importance of the preservation of our forest-wealth. TULSI VIVAHA (November) On the fifth day of the Shukla Paksha (Waxing moon of fortnightly) of the Magha month, coming of spring is celebrated. This is only known as Vasant Panchami. During this flowering and blossoming season one can listen distinctly to the kooing of the Koel (bird) and the entire ambiance becomes very beautiful. On this day one should dress up in beautiful attire and worship Lord Vishnu. On this day Brahmins should be offered food. Pitru-Tarpan (liberation of deceased ancestors) can also be performed on this day. One can also see worship of Goddess Saraswati. The companion of Spring, God of Love Kamadev and his wife Rati are also prayed and worshipped on this auspicious occasion. It is on this day when Abeer and Gulal are played with and songs of Holi are sung till Phalgun Poornima. Because of the happiness and joyous it is obvious that we rejoice while celebrating this auspicious occasion. GOKULASHTAMI (August-September) Maha Vishnu took various avatars to protect the mortal world from the evildoers and sinners. One such incarnation was his birth as the child of King Vasudeva and Queen Devaki Devi. Gokul Ashtami is the birthday of Lord Krishna. It falls on the 8th day of the dark half of the month of 'Bhadrapada' (August-September) and is one of the greatest of all Hindu festivals. Lord Krishna was born at midnight. A twenty-four hour fast is observed on this day, which is broken at midnight. The festival is called in different names as "Krishna Jayanti", "Janma Ashtami", "Krishnaashtami" , "Gokul Ashtami", and as "Sri Jayanti". Birth of Lord Krishna The myth connected to the birth of Lord Vishnu is as follows. Vasudeva was the chief of 'Shooras' and married Devaki one of the seven daughters of Devaka. They were very happy, for none had ever seen so fine a man and a wife matched in such perfect harmony. People treat this day as one of very great rejoicing. There is recitation of the "Bhagavatam", singing and praying everywhere. Temples are decorated for the occasion, Kirtans are sung, bells are rung, the conch is blown, and Sanskrit hymns are recited in praise of Lord Krishna. At Mathura, the birthplace of Lord Krishna, special spiritual gatherings are organised at this time. Pilgrims from all over India attend these festive gatherings. People observe a daylong fast, which is broken only at midnight, the time when Krishna is believed to have been born. The festival is a community celebration, and people visit Krishna temples, which are specially decorated and lit for the occasion. On the occasion of 'Gokulashtami', we can find kids forming a human pyramid to reach the pot full of curds (dahi-handi) and break it. A little before midnight, devotees pour into temples to participate in the special 'Arati' and to relive the birth of Krishna. Till midnight, devotional songs are sung in anticipation of the holy birth. Special cradles are installed at temples and a small statue of the "Balgopal" is placed in them. SHIVARATRI (February - March) Maha Shivaratri is celebrated throughout the country; it is particularly popular in Uttar Pradesh. Maha Shivratri falls on the I3th (or I4th) day of the dark half of 'Phalgun' (February-March). The name means "the night of Shiva". The ceremonies take place chiefly at night. This is a festival observed in honour of Lord Shiva and it is believed that on this day Lord Shiva was married to Parvati. On this festival people worship 'Shiva - the Destroyer'. This night marks the night when Lord Shiva danced the 'Tandav'. In Andhra Pradesh, pilgrims throng the Sri Kalahasteshwara Temple at Kalahasti and the Bharamarambha Malikarjunaswamy Temple at Srisailam. Shiva - the word meaning auspicious - is one of the Hindu Trinity, comprising of Lord Brahma, the creator, Lord Vishnu, the preserver and Lord Shiva or Mahesh, the Destroyer and Re-Producer of life. Shiva is known by many names like "Shankar", "Mahesh", "Bholenath", "Neelakanth", "Shambhu Kailasheshwar", "Umanath", "Nataraj" and others. People observe a strict fast on this day. Some devotees do not even take a drop of water and they keep vigil all night. The Shiva Lingam is worshipped throughout the night by washing it every three hours with milk, curd, honey, rose water, etc., whilst the chanting of the Mantra "Om Namah Shivaya" continues. Offerings of Bael leaves are made to the Lingam as Bael leaves are considered very sacred and it is said that Goddess Lakshmi resides in them. Hymns in praise of Lord Shiva, such as the "Shiva Mahimna Stotra" of Pushpadanta or Ravana's "Shiva Tandava Stotra" are sung with great fervour and devotion. People repeat the 'Panchakshara' Mantra, "Om Namah Shivaya". He, who utters the names of Shiva during Shivaratri, with perfect devotion and concentration, is freed from all sins. He reaches the abode of Shiva and lives there happily. He is liberated from the wheel of births and deaths. Many pilgrims dock to the places where there are Shiva temples.

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