Indian History : After Independence

Indian History : After Independence

1948
Mahatma Gandhi assassinated.

1949
Indian Constitution adopted.

1950
India goes Republic; Death of Sardar Patel.

1951
First Five-Year Plan launched.

1952
Independent India's First General Elections to the Lok Sabha.

1953
Conquest of Mt. Everest by Ten Zing and Edmund Hillary.

1956
States Reorganisation Act.

1957
Second General Elections to the Lok Sabha.

1961
Goa, Daman and Diu liberated from the possession of Portuguese.

1962
China's attack on India; Third General Election.

1964
Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru died; Lal Bahadur Shastri took over as the new Prime Minister.

1965
Indo-Pak War; Ceasefire.

1966
Tashkent Pact; Death of Lal Bahadur Shastri; Mrs. Indira Gandhi took over as the new P.M.; Punjab divided; Formation of Haryana
State.

1967
Fourth General Elections.

1968
Emergency lifted.

1969
Death of President Zakir Husain, V. V. Giri elected as new President; Split in Congress; Nationalisation of 14 Banks.

1970
Fourth Lok Sabha dissolved; First atomic power station launched
at Tarapur.

1971
General Elections; Statehood to Himachal Pradesh; Indo-Pak War, Birth of Bangladesh.

1972
New States of Meghalaya, Tripura and Manipur; Assam state reorganised; Shimla Agreement; Death of C. Rajgopalachari.

1973
Nationalisation of Coal Mines; Mysore state renamed Karnataka.

1974
Nuclear explosion by India making her the sixth nuclear power in the World; Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed took over as the fifth President; Sikkim granted associate statehood to India.

1975
Sikkim becomes the 22nd state of India; India enters space age with the launching of Aryabhatta; Dr. Radhakrishnan dies; First Internal Emergency in independent India.

1976
Diplomatic relations with China & Pakistan restored; Lok Sabha extended for another year; 42nd Constitution Amendement Bill passed.

1977
Lok Sabha Elections; President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed died; Combination of four opposition parties named as Janata Party gets absolute majority; Mr. Morarji Desai became P. M.; Emergency lifted; N. Sanjiva Reddy elected President.

1979
India's Second satellite Bhaskara goes into orbit; Resignation of Mr. Morarji Desai as P. M.; Mr. Charan Singh sworn in as the new P.M.; Lok Sabha dissolved and mid-term poll announced; Death of  Loknayak Jay Prakash Narayan.

1980
General Elections to the Lok Sabha; Mrs. Gandhi returns to Power; Formation of Bharatiya Janata Party; Six more commercial banks nationalised, Launching of first satellite into orbit, Sanjay Gandhi died in air crash.

1981
India's first geostationary experimental communication satellite, APPLE, launched, Bhaskara II launched.

1982
46th Amendement Bill passed by Lok Sabha, Agreement for Supply of Mirage 2000.

1984
Rakesh Sharma is became India's first spaceman, Phu Dorjee becomes the first Indian to scale Mt. Everest without oxygen; Bachendri Pal becomes the first Indian woman to scale Mt. Everest; Operation Bluestar in Punjab to flush out extremists and terrorists from the Golden Temple and from Gurudwaras; Mrs. Indira Gandhi assassinated by her own security guards, Rajiv Gandhi takes over as the new P.M., More than 2,000 persons die due to the gas leakages in the Union Carbide factory in Bhopal, Eighth General Elections and Congress (I) gets massive majority.

1985
Lok Sabha passes Anti-defection Bill.                                   

1986
India's first test tube baby `Indira' is born at Bombay.

1987
Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh declared 23rd and 24th state of India,. Mr. R. Venkataraman sworn in as 8th President of India.

1988
Six opposition parties and Jan Morcha launch National Front. A new opposition party, the Janata Dal is launched Bangalore with V.P. Singh as its Chairman.

1989
The Supreme Court of India settles compensation for the Bhopal Gas tragedy victims at 470 million dollars. For the first time in the history of Parliament 73 M.Ps. resigned enmass.

1990
Upper age limit for the Civil Services Examination enhanced. The Union Government decided to implement the Mandal Commission report. 27 percent jobs to be reserved for Backward Classes.

1991
India allows U.S. military planes to refuel in country. Rajiv Gandhi assassinated at Sriperumbdur, 45 km. from Chennai.

1992
Woman commission constituted, Narsimha Rao wins confidence vote, Agreement on Tin Bigha, Babri Masjid demolished, Communal riots envelope the country.

1993
Russian President Boris Yeltsin visits India, Bodoland problem solved, Human Rights Commission set up.

1994
India successfully launches ASLV-D4. Surat declared pleague hit. First heart transplantation in the country.

1995
SAARC Summit in New Delhi. Punjab C.M. Beant Singh assassinated.

1996
India-Bangladesh sign Ganga Water Pact.

1997
U.F. Govt. led by H.D. Deve Gowda resigns. India celebrates 50th year of its independence. Lok Sabha dissolved.

1998Death sentence for 26 persons in Rajiv Gandhi assassination case.

1999
Operation Vijay makes a headway in Kargil.                         

2000
India US Joint working group on counter terrorism. TRAI ordinance promulgated.

2001
Summit in Agra with Pakistan, GSLV placed a satellite in a Geosynchronous Transfer orbit, Launching of PSLV-C3, Attack on the Parliament house, Missile Nag successfully test fired, Year of Census; collect data of one billion plus population.

2002
POTA passed in joint session. Missile man Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam elected as 12th President of India, India's first full-fledged meterological satellite METSET was successfully launched from Sriharikota.

2003
India and Pakistan exchange lists of nuclear installations, Canada, Australia, Singapore, New Zealand and EU Countries, Iranian President Moh. Khatami was the Chief Guest at India's 54th Republic Day Celebration, Brahmos, the supersonic, antiship cruise missile successfully test fired. RESOURCESAT-I sucessfully launched, India-Thailand signed five agreement. Bodo, Santhali, Maithili & Dogri languages included in the 8th Schedule.

2004
Mr. Atal Bihari Vajpayee attended the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad. President of Brazil was the Chief guest at India's 55th Republic day. The Election Commission announces Lok Sabha election. NDA loses Lok Sabha elections. President appoints Dr. Man Mohan Singh new Prime Minister of India. Major Rajyvardhan Singh wins silver medel in olympic double trap event. India's first educational satellite EDUSAT launched from Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota. Vilas Rao Deshmukh sworn in C.M. of Maharashtra.

2005
The Union Cabinet approves the National Rural Health Mission, Noted film-maker, The Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh, launches the National Legal Literacy Mission, in New Delhi, Punit Arora takes over as the first woman Vice-Admiral in the Navy, The Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh, launches the National Knowledge Commission, Justice Y.K. Sabharwal is sworn in Chief Justice of India, Uma Bharati is expelled from the BJP for `indiscipline', Raj Thackeray quits the Shiv Sena, Lal Krishna Advani resigns as BJP president.

2006
India-Pakistan exchange lists of nuclear facilities, 93rd congress held in Hyderabad, Lahore-Amritsar Bus Service begins, President
or APJ Abdul Kalam assent the constitution amendment bill providing reservation for the socially and educationally backward classes. VAT implemented in 27 states. Domestic Violence Act, 2005 comes into effect. Ban on child labour under the provisions of child labour Act, 1986. Sachar Committee submitted report on Muslims. Prithvi Interceptor Missile tested successfully. India-US Nuke deal approved by the US Congress.

2007
INSAT-4B is successfully launched by Ariane-5 launcher from the spaceport of Kourou in French Guyana. Sara Jane selected new Miss India-world, 2007. PSLV-C8 Launched Italian Satellite in space. Mayawati sworn in as Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh. Ms. Pratibha Devisingh Patil was sworn in as the first woman President of India. Mohammad Hamid Ansari was sworn in as the Vice-President of India. Ace Shooter Manavjit Singh Sandhu has been awarded the prestigious Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award, 2006. Lt. Gen. Deepak Kapoor has been appointed as the chief of Army Staff. President rule in Karnataka.

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Indian History At a Glance

Indian History At a Glance

B.C.

2500-1500
Indus Valley Civilisation.

540
Birth of Mahavir—Founder of Jainism.

563 
Birth of Gautam Buddha—Founder of Buddhism.

483
Buddha attains Nirvana.

468
Mahavir attains Nirvana.

327-325
Alexander's invasion of India.

322
Chandragupta Maurya's accession to the throne of Magadha.

305
Defeat of Seleucus at the hands of Chandragupta Maurya.

273-232
Ashoka's regime

261
Conquest of Kalinga.

58
Beginning of Vikram Era.

A.D.

78
Beginning of Saka Era.

120
Accession of Kanishka.

320
Beginning of Gupta Dynasty.

405
Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien visited India.

606-647
Harsha Vardhan's regime.

629
Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang visited India.

712
Mohammad-bin-Qasim's invasion of Sindh.

1001
Mahmud Gazhni's first attack on India.

1025
Mahmud Gazhni destroyed Somnath Temple.

1191
First Battle of Tarain.

1192
Second Battle of Tarain.

1206
Foundation of first Muslim Dynasty in India by Qutub-ud-din Aibak.

1221
First Mongol invasion of India by Changez Khan

1236
Accession of Razia Sultan to the throne of Delhi.

1398
Taimur Lang invaded India.

1469
Birth of Guru Nanak—Founder of Sikhism.

1498
Discovery of sea-route of India by Vasco-de-Gama, Portuguese
sailor.

1526
First Battle of Panipat, Ibrahim Lodi defeated by Babar, foundation of Mughal rule in India.

1556
Second Battle of Panipat, Hemu defeated by Akbar and latter's
accession to the throne.

1576
Battle of Haldighati, Rana Pratap was defeated by Akbar.   

1600
Establishment of East India Company.

1605
Death of Akbar.

1612
First English factory at Surat.

1627
Birth of Shivaji—Founder of Maratha Power.

1648
Taj Mahal completed at Agra.

1666
Shivaji's visit to the Mughal Court at Agra, his imprisonment and dramatic escape.

1680
Death of Shivaji.

1707
Death of Aurangzeb.

1739
Nadir Shah of Persia invaded India.

1757
Battle of Plassey.

1761
Third Battle of Panipat.

1764
Battle of Buxar.

1773
Regulating Act.

1774
Birth of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

1784
Pitt's India Bill.

1793
Permanent settlement of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

1833
Macaulay recommended English as the medium of instruction in India.

1839
Death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

1853
First railway line opened in India from Bombay to Thana.

1857
First Battle of Indian Independence.

1858
End of East India Company's rule; administration of India transferred to the British Crown.

1861
Indian Councils Act; Rabindranath Tagore born.

1863
Birth of Swami Vivekanand.

1869
Birth of Mahatma Gandhi.

1885
Indian National Congress founded by A.O. Hume.                

1889
Birth of Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru.

1905
First Partition of Bengal.

1906
All India Muslim League founded.

1909
Morely-Minto Reforms Bills passed.

1911
Partition of Bengal revoked; India's Capital transferred from Calcutta to Delhi.

1919Government of India Act Passed; Jallianwala Bagh massacre at Amritsar.

1920
Bal Gangadhar Tilak died; Non-Co-operation Movement started
by Mahatma Gandhi-Khilafat Movement started by Ali Brothers.

1922
Chauri Chaura outrage in U.P.

1927
Visit of Simon Commission.

1928
Death of Lala Lajpat Rai.

1929
Under the Presidentship of Pt. Nehru at Lahore session of Congress, a resolution for complete independence passed.

1930
Mahatma Gandhi takes up Dandi March; First Round Table Conference in London.

1931
Gandhi-Irwin Pact; Second Round Table Conference.

1932
Communal Award announced; Gandhiji declares fast unto death
against the award.

1935
Government of India Act passed.

1937
Provincial Autonomy.

1941
Death of Rabindranath Tagore; escape of Subhash Chandra
Bose from India.

1942
Quit India Movement.

1943
Bengal famine; Indian National Army formed at Singapore by Subhash Chandra Bose.

1945
Trial of I.N.A. at Red Fort; Shimla Conference.

1946
Visit of Cabinet Mission to India; Formation of Interim Government at the Centre.

1947
India attains independence; Partition of India & creation of Pakistan.

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Indian National Movement

Indian National Movement

The East India Company had established its control over almost all parts of India by the middle of the 19th century. There were numerous risings in the first hundred years of British rule in India. They were, however, local and isolated in character. Some of them were led by the nobility who were refusing to accept the changing patterns of the time and wanted the past to be restored. But the risings developed a tradition of resistance offoreign rule, culminating in the 1857 revolt. 

The Revolt of 1857, which was called a Sepoy Mutiny by British historians and their imitators in India but described as "the First War of Indian Independence" by many Indian historians, shook the British authority in India from its very foundations.

The Revolt of 1857, an unsuccessful but heroic effort to eliminate foreign rule, had begun. The capture of Delhi and the proclamation of Bahadurshah as the Emperor of Hindustan are a positive meaning to the Revolt and provided a rallying point for the rebels by recalling the past glory of the imperial city.

On May 10, 1857, soldiers at Meerut refused to touch the new Enfield rifle cartridges. The soldiers along with other group of civilians, went on a rampage shouting 'Maro Firangi Ko'. They broke open jails, murdered European men and women, burnt their houses and marched to Delhi. The appearance of the marching soldiers next morning in Delhi was a'signal to the local soldiers, who in turn revolted, seized the city and proclaimed the 80-year old Bahadurshah Zafar, as Emperor of India.

 Within a month of the capture of Delhi, the Revolt spread to the different parts of the country. Kanpur, Lucknow, Benaras,  Allahabad, Bareilly, Jagdishpur and Jhansi. In the absence of any leader from their own ranks, the insurgents turned to the traditional leaders of Indian society. At Kanpur, NanaSaheb, the adopted son of last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, led the forces. Rani Lakshmi Bai in Jhansi, Begum Hazrat Mahal in Lucknow and .Khan Bahadur in Bareilly were in command. However, apart from a commonly shared hatred for alien rule, the rebels had no political perspective or a definite vision of the future. They were all prisoners of their own past, fighting primarily to regain their lost privileges. Unsurprisingly, they proved incapable of ushering in a new political order. 

Government of India Act 1858

Queen Victoria issued a proclamation on November 1, 1858, placing India under direct government of the Crown, whereby:

(a) A viceroy was appointed in India

(b) Princes were given the right to adopt a son (abolition of Doctrine of Lapse)

(c) Treaties were honoured

(d) Religious freedom was restored and equality treatment promised to Indians

 The Proclamation was called the 'Magna Carta of Indian Liberty'. The British rule in India was strongest between 1858 and 1905. The British also started treating India as its most precious possession and their rule over India seemed set to continue for centuries to come. Because of various subjective and objective factors which came into existence during this era, the feeling of nationalism in Indians started and grow.

Indian National Congress (1885)

Although the British succeeded in suppressing the 1857 Revolt, they could not stop the growth of political awareness in India. The Indian National Congress was founded in December 1885. It was the visible embodiment of the national awakening in the country. Its founder was an Englishman, Allan Octavian Hume, a retired member of the Indian Civil Service. The Indian leaders, who cooperated with Hume in launching the Congress, were patriots of high character. The first President of the Congress was W.C. Bannerjee. 

The aims of the Congress were: promotion of friendship and cooperation amongst the nationalist political workers from the different parts of the country; the eradication of racial, creed or provincial prejudices and promotion of national unity; formulation of popular demands and their presentation before the Government; and, most important of all, the training and organisation of public opinion in the country.

Partition of Bengal (1905)

On December 30, 1898, Lord Curzon took over as the new Viceroy of India. The partition of Bengal came into effect on October 16, 1905, through a Royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating a new province of East Bengal, which later on became East Pakistan and present day Bangladesh. The government explained that it was done to stimu­late growth of underdeveloped eastern region of the Bengal. But, actually, the main objective was to 'Divide and Rule' the most advanced region of the country at that time.

Muslim League (1906)

In 1906, All India Muslim League was set up under the leader­ship of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimul­lab of Dacca and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. The League supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi Movement, and demanded special safegurds for its community and a separate elec­torates of Muslims. This led to communal differences between Hindus and Muslims.

Swadeshi Movement (1905)

The Swadeshi movement has its genesis in the anti-partition move­ment which was started to oppose the British decision to divide Bengal. With the start of the Swadeshi movement at the turn of the century, the Indian National Movement took a major leap forward.

The Indian National Congress took up the Swadeshi call in Benaras Session, 1905, presided over by G.K. Gokhale, supported the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement of Bengal, Militant Nationalism spearheaded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Aurobindo Ghosh was, however, in favour of extending the movement of the rest of India and carrying it beyond the programme of just Swadeshi and boycott of goods to full-fledged political mass struggle.

Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)

Morley-Minto Reforms were introduced in 1909 during the period when Lord Minto was the Governor­General of India. The reforms envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims besides other constitutional measures. The government thereby sought to create a rift within the Congress on the one hand by winning the support of the moderates,

and on the other, to win favour of Muslims against Bindus. To achieve the latter objective, the reforms introduced the system of separate electorates under which Muslims could only vote for Muslim candidates. This was done to encourage the notion that the political, economic and cultural interests of Hindus and Muslims were separate and not common. Indian political leaders were however dissatisfied by these reforms.

Lucknow Pact (1916)

An important step forward in achieving Hindu-Muslim unity was the Lucknow Pact 1916. Anti­British feelings were generated among the Muslims following a war between Britain and Turkey which opened way for Congress and Mus­lim League unity. Both the Con­gress and the Muslim League held sessions at Lucknow in 1916 and concluded the famous Lucknow Pact. The Congress accepted the separate electorates, and both organizations jointly demanded dominion status for the country.

 Hindu-Muslim unity weakened the British attitude and forced the government to announce its future policy. In 1916 a British policy was announced whereby association of Indians was increased and there was to be a gradual development of local self-governing institutions.

Home Rule Movement (1915­1916)

Dr. Annie Besant, inspired by the Irish rebellion, started a Home Rule Movement in India in September 1916. The movement spread rapidly and branches of the Rome Rule League were established all over India. Bal Gangadhar Tilak wholeheartedly supported this movement. Rejoined forces with Dr. Besant and persuaded the Muslim League to support this programme.

The Gandhian Era (1918-1947)

Mahatma Gandhi dominated the Indian political scene from 1918­1947. This period of the Indian National Congress is also referred to as the Gandhian Era. It was the most

intense and eventful phase of India's freedom struggle. Mahatma Gandhi provided the leadership of the highest order and his philosophy of non-violent Satyagraha became the most potent weapon to drive out .the British from the Indian soil.

Khilafat Movement (1920)

The Caliph, Sultan of Turkey, was looked upon by the Muslims as their religious head. During the First World War, when the safety and the welfare of Turkey were threatened by the British thereby weakening the Caliph's position, Indian Muslims adopted an aggressive anti-British attitude. The two brothers, Mohammed Ah and Shaukat Ali launched an anti­British movement in 1920-the Khilafat Movement for the restoration.

The Rowlatt Act (1919)

While trying to appease Indians, the British Government was following a policy of repression. Throughout the First World War, repression of freedom fighters had continued. The revolutionaries had been hunted down, hanged or im­prisoned. The Government now decided to arm itself with more powers in order to suppress the freedom fighters. In March 1919, it passed the Rowlatt Act. This Act authorised the government to detain any person without trial. The Rowlatt Act came like a sudden blow. The Indians had been promised extension of democracy during the war. They felt humiliated and were filled with anger when they found that their civil liberties were going to be curtailed still further. Unrest gripped the country and a powerful agitation against the Act started. During this agitation, Gandhiji took command of the nationalist movement. March and April 1919 witnessed a remarkable political awakening in the country. There were hartals, strikes and demonstrations at various places. The slogans of Hindu-Muslim unity filled the air.

Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (1919)

The Government was bent on suppressing the mass agitation. In Bombay; Ahmedabad, Calcutta, Delhi and at other places demonstrators were lathi-charged and fired upon. Gandhiji gave a call for a general hartal on April 6, 1919. The call was responded to with great enthusiasm. The Government decided to resort to repression to suppress the agitation. At this time the British Government committed one of the worst political crimes in modem history. An unarmed but a large crowd had gathered in Jallianwalla Bagh, Amritsar (Punjab) on April, 13, 1919 for a meeting. General Dyer ordered his troops to open fire on them without warning. This massacre of unarmed people (hundreds died and thousands were wounded) in an enclosed place from which there was no exit, was fol­lowed by a reign of terror in several districts under martial law.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)

With the Congress support of the Khilafat movement, Hindu-Muslim unity was achieved which encouraged Gandhiji to launch his non-violent, non-cooperation movement. At the Calcutta Session in September 1920, the Congress resolved in favour of the non-violent, non-cooperation movement and defined Swaraj as its ultimate aim. The movement envisaged: (i) Surrender of titles and honorary officers; (ii) Resignation from nominated offices and posts in the local bodies; (iii) Refusal to attend government darbars and official functions and boycott of British courts by the lawyers; (iv) Refusal of general public to offer themselves for military and other government jobs, and boycott of foreign goods, etc.

 The non-cooperation movement also saw picketing of shops selling foreign cloth and boycott of the foreign cloth by the followers of Gandhiji.

Chauri Chaura Incident (1922)

The Congress session held at Ahmedabad in December 1921 decided to launch a Civil Disobedience Movement while reiterating its stand on the non-violent, non­cooperation movement of which Gandhiji was appointed the leader. Before Gandhiji could launch the Civil Disobedience Movement, a mob of countrymen at Chauri Chaura, a place near Gorakhpur in D.P., clashed with the police which opened fire. In retaliation the mob burnt the police-station and killed 22 policemen. This compelled Gandhiji to call off the Civil Disobedience Movement on February 12, 1922.

 Despite this Gandhiji was arrested and sentenced to six years imprisonment. The Chauri Chaura incident convinced Gandhiji that the nation was not yet ready for the mass-dis6bedience and he prevailed upon Congress Working Committee in Bardoli on February 12, 1922 to call off the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Swaraj Party (1922)

Gandhiji's decision to call off the agitation caused frustration among masses. His decision came in for severe criticism from his colleagues like Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das and N.C. Kelkar, who organized the Swaraj Party. The foundations of the 'Swaraj Party' were laid on January 1, 1923, as the 'Congress­Khilafat-Swarajya Patty'. It proposed then an alternative programme of diverting the movement from widespread civil disobedience programme to restrictive one which would encourage its member to enter into legislative councils (established under Montford Reforms of 1919) by contesting elections in order to wreck the legislature from within and to use moral pressure to compel the authority to concede to the popular demand for self-government.

Simon Commission (1927)

Under the 1919 Act, a statutory commission was to be appointed by the British Government at the end of ten years from the passing of the Act to inquire into the working of the system of government in the country and to recommend further reforms. Thus the commission was scheduled to be appointed in 1929. It was ac­tually appointed two years earlier in 1927. The commission consisted of seven members of the British Parliament. It was headed by Sir John Simon. As all its members were British, the Congress decided to boycott it. The Commission arrived in India in Feb. 1928. It was greeted with black flags and hostile demonstrations everywhere it went. In one such demonstration at Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured in a wanton police lathi-charge on the demonstrators. Lalaji died soon after from wounds received during the demonstration.

Dandi March (1930)

Also called the 'Salt Satyagraha'. To achieve the goal of complete independence, Gandhiji launched another civil disobedience movement. Along with 79 followers, Gandhiji started his famous march from Sabarmati Ashram on March 20,1930, for the small village Dandi to break the Salt Law. While Gandhiji was marching to Dandi,

Congress leaders and workers had been busy at various levels with the hard organizational tasks of enrolling volunteers and members, forming grassroot Congress Committees, collecting funds, and touring villages and towns to spread nationalist messages.

 On reaching the seashore on April 6, 1930, he broke the Salt Law by picking up salt from the seashore. By picking a handful of salt, Gandhiji inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement, a movement that was to remain unsurpassed in the history of the Indian National Movement for the countrywide mass participation it unleashed. The movement became so powerful that it sparked off partriotism even among the Indian soldiers in the Army. The Garhwal soldiers refused to fire on the people at Peshawar.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)

Early in 1931 two moderate statesmen, Sapru and Jayakar, initiated efforts to bring about rapprochement between Gandhiji and the government. Six meetings with Viceroy Lord Irwin finally led to the signing of a pact between the two on March 5, 1931, whereby the Congress called off the movement and agreed to join the Second Round Table Conference. The terms of the agreement included the immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted for violence, the remission of all fines not yet collected, the return of confiscated land not yet sold to third parties, and lenient treatment of all the government officials who had resigned.

 Gandhiji and other leaders were released from jail as Irwin agreed to release most political prisoners and to return the properties that had been seized by the governments. The government also conceded the right to make the salt for consumption of villages along the coast, and also the right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing. The Congress on its part, agreed to discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement and to participate in the next Round Table Conference.

The Government of India Act, 1935

The Simon Commission report submitted in 1930 formed the basis for the Government of India Act 1935. The new Government of India Act received the royal assent on August 4, 1935.

 The Act continued and extended all the existing features of the Indian constitution. Popular representation, which went back to 1892, dyarchy and ministerial responsibility, which dated from 1921, provincial autonomy, whose chequered history went back to eighteenth century presidencies, communal representation, which first received recognition in 1909, and the safeguards devised in 1919, were all continued and in most cases extended. But in addition there were certain new principles intro­duced. It provided for a federal type of government. Thus, the act:

(a) Introduced provincial autonomy

(b) Abolished dyarchy in provinces I

(c) Made ministers responsible to the legislative and federation at the centre

 The Act of 1935 was condemned by nearly all sections of Indian public opinion and was unanimously rejected by the Congress. The Congress demanded instead, the convening of a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise to frame a constitution for an independent India.

Quit India Movement (1942)

On August 8, 1942, the Congress in its meeting at Bombay passed a resolution known as 'Quit India' resolution, whereby Gandhiji asked the British to quit India and gave a call for 'Do or die' to his countrymen. On August 9, 1942, Gandhiji was arrested but the other leaders continued the revolutionary struggle. Violence spread throughout the country, several government officers were destroyed and damaged, telegraph wires were cut and communication paralyzed. The movement was, however, crushed by the government.

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The British Prime Minister, Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission would visit India to make recommendations regarding constitutional reforms to be introduced in India. The Cabinet Mission which constituted of Lord Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander visited India and met the representatives of different political parties but a satisfactory solution to the constitutional difficulties could not be found. The Mission envisaged the establishment of a Constituent Assembly to frame the Constitution as well as an interim government. The Muslim League accepted the plan on June 6, 1946, while maintaining its rights of striving for a separate Muslim state. The Congress also partially accepted the plan.

Interim Government (1946)

On September 2, 1946, an inter­im government was formed. Congress members led by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru joined it but the Muslim League did not as it withdrew its earlier acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan.

Formation of Constituent Assembly (1946)

The Constituent Assembly met on December 9, 1946, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected its President. The Muslim League did not join the Assembly.

Mountbatten Plan (1947)

In March 1947, Lord Mountbatten replaced Lord Wavell. He announced his plan on June 3, 1947. It offered a key to the political and constitutional deadlock created by the refusal of the Muslim League to join the Constituent Assembly formed to frame the Constitution of India. Mountbatten's formula was to divide India but retain maximum unity. The country would be partitioned but so would be Punjab and Bengal, so that the limited Pakistan that emerged would meet both the Congress and the League's position to some extent. The League's position on Pakistan was conceded in that it would be created, but the Congress position on unity would be taken into account to make Pakistan as small as possible. He laid down detailed principles for the partition of the country and speedy transfer of political powers in the form of dominion status to the newly formed dominions of India and Pakistan. Its acceptance by the Congress and the Muslim' League resulted in the birth of Pakistan.

 The Indian Independence Act, 1947

The Bill containing the provisions of the Mountbatten Plan of June 3, 1947, was introduced in the British Parliament and passed as the Indian Independence Act,

1947. The Act laid down detailed measures for the partition of India and speedy transfer of political powers to the new government of India and Pakistan.

 Partition of India (1947)

In accordance with the Indian Independence Act, 1947, India was partitioned on August 15, 1947 into India and Pakistan. The Act made India and Pakistan independent dominions. Bloodshed and violence marked the exodus of refugees. The state of Kashmir acceded to the Indian Union, after the raiders were helped by Pakistan, in October 1947. Lord Mountbatten was appointed the Governor-General of free1ndia and M.A. Jinnah the first Governor-General of Pakistan.

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Prominent Figures of the Indian Freedom Movement

Prominent Figures of the Indian Freedom Movement

Allan Octavian Hume (1829-1912)

A retired English member of the Indian Civil Services who sympathised with the Indian cause and propagated the ideals of the Congress in Britain. He founded the Indian National Congress in 1885 and was its first General Secretary.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920)

An aggressive freedom fighter popularly known as 'The Father of Indian Unrest'. His political career began in 1896 during the famine in the Deccan. His followers along with him preached the relevant sections of the Famine Relief Code and motivated the people to be bold and fearless in demanding their rights. He was first Indian leader to give the slogan "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it". He is the author of Gita-Rahasaya through which he taught the people to fight against oppression and unrighteousness. He started two well-known newspapers: Kesari(Marathi) and Maratha (English) to rouse national sentiments. The three leaders: Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal are known in the history of Indian freedom movement as 'Lal, Bal, Pal'.

Bipin Chandra Pal (1858-1932)

One of the extremist leaders of the freedom struggle and an ardent supporter of the boycott of foreign goods, the Swadeshi movement and national education. He did not believe in Dominion Status and wanted full-fledged independence. Achieved national stature after partition of Bengal. In the 1907 Surat Congress session, he fought for Tilak's candidature for presidentship.

Dadabhai Naoroji (1824-1917)

Also known as the 'Grand Old Man of India', he was a prominent Congress leader and worked for Swaraj in England which was the centre of his political activities. He was the first Indian to be elected member of the House of Commons from a London county. He authored Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.

Surendranath Bannerji (1848-1925)

He entered the Indian Civil Services in 1869 but was dismissed for a minor irregularity. He then established the Rippon College of which he remained the Principal for several years. Surendranath Bannerji started a daily newspaper 'Bengal' which was published in English. He was the president of Indian National Congress twice (1895 and 1902).

Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915)

Started as a maths teacher and rose to the position of Principal of the well-known Ferguson College, Pune. He played a commendable role in the Imperial Legislative Council of which he was a member in 1902. He founded 'The Servants of India Society' and served as President of the Indian National Congress in 1907.

Ms Annie Besant (1847-1933)

Also known as the 'Grand Old Lady of Indian Nationalism'. She became member of the Theosophical Society in 1889 and became its President in 1907. She settled in India and worked for the social upliftment of the people. Ms Annie Besant joined the Congress and in 1916 inaugurated the All India 'Home Rule League' in Madras. She played a prominent role in uniting militant and moderate leaders at the Congress session in Lucknow in 1920. Later she left the Congress but continued to serve India. She translated the Bhagawad Gita into English.

Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928)

A dedicated social worker educationist, he joined the Indian National Congress in 1888. He supported the extremist leaders in the 1907 Congress split-along with Tilak. Lal Lajpat Rai started and edited a newspaper Young India, presided over the 1920 Congress Session and became member of the Indian Legislative Assembly in 1923. In 1920 he led the non-cooperation movement in Punjab and was sent to jail. On a visit to Lahore on October 30, 1928, he suffered severe lathi blows in a police attack and later died of injuries. He is also called 'Sher-e-Punjab' and 'Punjab Kesri'.

C. R. Das (1870-1925)

Also known as 'Deshbandhu', a lawyer in the Calcutta Bar he entered politics in 1920. He presided over the Gaya Congress session and along with Motilal Nehru and Hakim Ajmal Khan launched the 'Swaraj Party' in 1923.

Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya (1861-1946)

He joined the Congress in 1886 and was twice elected President of the Indian National Congress. He represented the Hindu community at the Round Table Conference and founded the Nationalist Party to protect rights of the Hindu community.

Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)

Known as 'Father of the Nation' and 'Bapu', he was a true believer of non-violence. He led the Indian National Movement from 1920 to 1947. He worked for Hindu-Muslim unity but was assassinated in 1948.

Subhash Chandra Bose (1897)

Also known as 'Netaji', he resigned from the Indian Civil Service in 1921 and supported the non-cooperation movement led by Gandhiji. He was elected president of the Congress in 1938 but left the Congress in 1939 and formed the 'Forward Black' party. Subhash Chandra Bose was arrested during World War II but escaped from India and went to Japan where he formed theIndian National Army (INA) to fight the British but was unsuccessful due to Japan's surrender after the war. It was Netaji's wish to unfurl the national-flag at the Red Fort in Delhi. It is thus in his remembrance that the National Flag is unfurled every year at Red Fort on August 15. He also gave the slogan 'Jai Hind' to the nation. He is believed to have died in an air-crash in 1945.

Motilal Nehru (1861-1931)

A national leader of the Gandhian era; a noted lawyer of the Allahabad High Court, Motilal Nehru joined the Home Rule League in 1917 and was elected president of the Indian National Congress in 1930. He founded the Swaraj Party and donated his palatial house 'Anand Bhawan' (later known as Swaraj Bhawan) to the Congress.

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1875-1950)

Also known as the 'Iron Man of India' Sardar Patel was Home Minister in independent India's cabinet during which time he worked tirelessly for the integration of the Indian princely states.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888-1958)

A great national leader who believed in communal harmony, he was elected President of the Indian National Congress in 1923 and was a close associate of Gandhiji. He remained Union Minister of Education from January 1947 till his death on February 22,1958.

Dr Rajendra Prasad (1884-1963)

Joined the Congress in 1911. He also edited a Hindi weekly called Desh. He is said to have changed the whole base of Indian politics after the 1920 Nagpur session of the Congress by deciding to involve the masses in the freedom movement. He remained Food and Agriculture Minister in the interim ministry and was elected President of the Constituent Assembly in 1947. He later took over as President of India between 1952 and 1962.

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)

A leading member of the Indian National Congress. As Congress President at the 1929 Lahore Session he declared that complete independence was the aim of the Congress. Jawaharlal Nehru remained PM of India from 1947 till his death. He pronounced the doctrine of Panchsheel which is based on the ideology of peaceful co-existence and non-alignment. He authored Discovery of India and Glimpses of World History, among other books.

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Major Dynasties and Rulers of India

Major Dynasties and Rulers of India

Century

6–4 BC   Magadhan Ascendancy (North India)   544–492   Bimbisara  492–460   Ajatshatru   344–323   Mahapadma Nanda, Dhan Nanda 4–2 BC   Mauryan Empire (Areas south of Karnataka)   324–300   Chandragupta Maurya   298–273   Bindusara   273–236   Ashoka 2–1 BC   Shungas (Ganges valley and part of Central India)   184–151   Demetrius II   155–130   Menander (Milinda) 1 BC–AD 3   Satavahanas (North Deccan) 120 Gautamiputra Satakarni 1 BC–AD 3   Shakas (West India) 1 BC–AD 3   Kushanas  (Northern India and Central Asia)   78–106 Kanishka AD 4–AD 6   Guptas (North India)   319/20–330   Chandragupta I   330–375   Samudragupta   375–413   Chandragupta II   413–455   Kumaragupta I   455–477   Skandagupta AD 4–AD 9   Pallavas (Tamil Nadu) AD 5–AD 6   Hunas (Northwestern India and Central Asia) AD 7   Harsha (North India and Central Asia) 300–888   Pallavas (Tamil Nadu)   630–668   Narasimhavaraman Mahamalla   695–722   Narasimhavaram II 556–757   Chalukyas of  Vatapi (West and Central Deccan) 609–642   Pulakeshin II 7th to 10th C   Pandyas of Madurai (Tamil Nadu)  668–815   Veruguna I   815–862   Shrimara Shrivallabha   862–867   Varaguna II 630–970   Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (Andhra Pradesh) 750–1142   Rashtrakutra (West and Central Deccan) 773–1019   Pratiharas (West India and Upper Ganges) 850–1276   Cholas of Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu) 916–1203   Chandellas (Bundelkhand) 850–1195   Kalachuris of Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh) 973–1192   Chalukyas of Kalyani (West and Central Deccan) 974–1060   Paramaras (Malwa) 1090–1193   Gahadavalas (Kanauj) 1110–1327   Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra (South Deccan) 1118–1199   Senas (Bengal) 1190–1294   Yadavas of Deyagiri (North Deccan) 1206–1290   Ilbari 1290–1320   Khilji 1320–1414   Tughlaqus 1451–1526   Lodis 1526–1857   Mughals 1540–1555   Suri 1649–1818   Marathas 1708–1818   Peshwas

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Hindu Religious Books

Hindu Religious Books

Vedas

There are four Vedas– 1. The Rig Veda 2. The Sama Veda 3. The Yajur Veda and 4. The Atharva Veda

Upanishads

They represent the high water mark of Hindu intellect. They constitute the basis of vedantic philosophy.

Epics

1. The Ramayan written by Valmiki 2. The Mahabharat written by Ved Vyas

Puranas

They are 18 in number. They constitute a mixture of religion, history, mythology and tradition. These Puranas are– 01. Brahma Purana 02. Padma Purana 03. Vishnu Purana 04. Vayavya Purana 05. Bhagvad Purana 06. Naridiaya Purana 07. Markandeya Purana 08. Brahmvaivart Purana 09. Leng Purana 10. Varah Purana 11. Skanda Purana 12. Garud Purana 13. Brahmand Purana 14. Aagneyay Purana 15. Bhavishya Purana 16. Baaman Purana 17. Karma Purana 18. Matsaya Purana

Shastras or the Darshanas

Six in number.

Smiritiyaan

Ten in number.

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Posted in: Indian history

Major Industries and its Centres

Major Industries and its Centres

Cotton Textiles Mumbai, Sholapur, Nagpur, Pune, Ahmedabad, Surat, Vadodara, Indore; Chennai, Madurai and Coimbatore, Kanpur and Kolkata. Jute Textiles West Bengal, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, U.P. and M.P. Silk Textiles Asom, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Orissa, U.P., M.P., W. Bengal, Bihar, Maharashtra and Punjab. Woollen Textile The chief centres of woollen textiles are Punjab, U.P., Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, West Bengal. Sugar Industry U.P., Bihar and some centres are there in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Punjab. Cement Industry Jharkhand, M.P., Chattisgarh, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Haryana, U.P. and Orissa have some factories also. Paper Industry West Bengal, Maharashtra, U.P., Bihar, Orissa, Punjab, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. Iron and Steel Industry Jamshedpur, Bokaro (Jharkhand), Bhilai (Chattisgarh), Durgapur, Hirapur, Kulti, Burnpur (West Bengal), Rourkela (Orissa), Bhadrawati (Karnataka), Rourkela (Orissa) and Neyveli (Tamil Nadu). Leather Industry Chennai, Agra, Kolkata, Delhi, Kanpur, Mumbai, Deonaar, Deevaghat. Aluminium Alwaye (Kerala), Muri (Jharkhand), Hirakud (Orissa), Renukoot (U.P.), Bailur (W. Bengal), Koyna Mettur (Tamilnadu) and Hirakud (Orissa). Matches Bareilly, Kolkata, Chennai, Gwalior and Hyderabad. Photo Film Industry Ootacamund (Tamil Nadu). Glass Ferozabad, Shikohabad, Bahjoi, Naini, Haorah, Bangalore and Belgaon. Chemical Industry Delhi, Pimpri, Pune, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Rishikesh, Bangalore and Amritsar. Rubber-Goods Industry Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Bangalore, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Ballabhgarh, Shahaganj, Chamanacheri and Ambatoor. Locomotive Industry Chittaranjan (West Bengal), Varanasi in U.P., Perambur (Tamil Nadu). Automobile Industry Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Jamshed<%0>pur, Pune and Gurgaon. Antibiotic Industry Rishikesh, Pimpri and Delhi. Aircraft Manufacturing Industry Bangalore, Kanpur, Nasik, Koraput and Hyderabad. Fertilizers Industry Durgapur, Kanpur, Foolpur (Uttar Pradesh), Haldia, Namrup, Rourkela, Vadodara, Barauni, Vishakhapatnam, Gorakhpur, etc. Plastic Industry Mumbai, Kolkata, Amritsar, Kanpur, Hyderabad and Coimbatore. Petro-Chemical Industry Vadodara and Mumbai, Bongaigoan, Asom

Towns Associated with Industries Agra : Stoneware, leather, carpets and marbles. Ahmedabad : Cotton-textiles. Aligarh : Cutlery, locks and dairy-industries. Ambala : Scientific goods. Amritsar : Cloth-printing, carpets, woollen goods, shawls. Bangalore : Watches, telephone, aircraft industry. Bareilly : Rubber factory, match factory, wood work. Bhagalpur : Silk. Chennai : Integral coach factory, leather, cigarette, cotton. Mumbai : Chemicals, oil refineries, fertilizers, film, industry, woollen goods, cotton manufacturing. Chittaranjan : Electrical locomotives. Churk : Cement. Cochin : Coffee, coconut oil, ship-building. Dalmianagar : Cement. Darjeeling : Tea, orange. Delhi : Textiles, chemicals, electronics, sewing machines. Dhariwal : Woollen goods. Ferozabad : Glass-bangles. Hardwar : Heavy electricals. Jamshedpur : Iron and steel works, train coaches locomotives. Jallandhur : Sports articles and surgical goods. Jaipur : Ivory work, brass work, jewellery, pottery, cloth painting. Kolkata : Iron and steel, jute, paper, pottery. Kanpur : Leather, cotton, aircraft factories, woollen mills, soap, iron, flour mills. Kolar : Gold-fields. Lucknow : Embroidery, gold, silver, lac work. Ludhiana : Hosiery, cycle. Mirzapur : Carpet, pottery, stoneware and brass. Moradabad : Brassware, cutlery, enamel industry. Karnataka : Sandalwood oil, ivory work, silk goods. Renukoot : Hindustan Aluminium Works. Saharanpur : Paper mill. Srinagar : H.M.T. factory, woodwork, embroidery, paper machine, woollen shawls. Surat : Cotton textiles. Tarapur : Atomic power plant. Titagarh : Paper and jute. Trombay : Oil refineries, atomic-reactors. Varanasi : Diesel-locomotives, brass-wares, lac bangles. Vishakhapatnam : Ship-building.

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A Brief Description

A Brief Description

Official Name : Republic of India
Capital : New Delhi
Nationality : Indian
Geographical Area (Sq. Km.) : 32,87,263

Population (2001) :  1,02,87,37,436
                                  Males : 53,22,23,090
                                  Females : 49,65,14,346

Pop. Density : 325 per sq. km.
Sex Ratio :  933 females per 1000 males

Literacy Rate (2001) : 64.8%
                                     Males : 75.2%
                                     Females : 53.7%

Total workers : 40,22,34,724
National Income (2007-08) : Rs. 31,02,004 crores
Per Capita Income  (2007-08) : Rs. 33,131

States : 28

Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat, Karnataka, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Asom, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Punjab, Haryana, Kerala, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Sikkim, Goa.

Union Territories : 7

Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Pondicherry, Chandigarh, Daman & Diu, Lakshadweep.

Mountain Ranges : 7

1. The Himalayas 2. The Patkoi and other ranges bordering India in the north and north-east 3. The Vindhyan 4. The Aravalli 5. The Satpura 6. The Sahyadri 7. The Eastern Ghats.

Main Watersheds : 3
1. Himalyan range with its Karakoram branch in the north, 2. Vindhyan and Satpura ranges in Central India, and 3. Sahyadri or Western Ghats on the West Coast.

Situation : India is the seventh largest country and second most populous country of the world accounting for about 2.4% of the total world area. lying entirely in the northern hemisphere, the mainland extends between latitude 8°4' N and 37°6' N and 68°7' E and 97°25' E and is a part of the Asian continent. India measures about 3,214 km from north to south between the extreme longitudes and about 2,933 km from east to west between the extreme longitudes. It has a land frontier of about 15,200 km. The total length of the costline of the mainland, lakshdweep islands and Andaman and Nicobar Isalands, is 7,575.6 km. Total geographic land area 32,87,263 sq km. If we consider cultivable land, India is second only to USA. India is located mid-way between West Asia and East Asia. Many transoceanic routes pass through India which connect African continent, industrially developed European continent, Petroleum rich West Asia and South-eastern countries, namely, China, Japan, Australia and Western coast of USA.

Countries having a common border with India are Afghanistan and Pakistan to the north-west, China, Bhutan and Nepal to the north, Myanmar to the east and Bangladesh to the east of West Bengal.

Physical Characteristics : The mainland consists of four well-defined regions :
1.   The great mountain zone
2.   The Indo-Gangetic plain
3.   The desert region
4.   The Southern Peninsula

Rivers : The rivers of India may be classified as follows :
1.   The Himalayan rivers
2.   The Deccan rivers
3.   The Coastal rivers
4.   The rivers of the inland drainage basin

Climatic Conditions : The Indian meteorological department recognizes four seasons viz.,
1.   The Cold Weather (Dec. – Feb.)
2.   The Hot Weather (March – May)
3.   The Rainy Season (June – Sept.)
4.   The season of the retreating monsoon (Oct. – Nov.)

The climatic regions based on rainfall are granted recognition in India.

Dimensions : Distance from north to south 3,214 km
                            Distance from east to west 2,933 km
                             Length of coastline 6,100 km
                             ength of land frontier 15,200 km
 

Boundaries :

North : The Himalayan range and Nepal separate India from Tibet. The protected state of Bhutan also lies in the north-east. The boundary line between India and China is called the MacMohan Line. India's holder with Nepal spans for (1,752 km); with Bhutan (587 km); and with China (3,917 km).

East : Myanmar (Burma) and Bangladesh form an enclave within India and the Bay of Bengal. Its international boundary with Myanmar is 1,458 km long and with Bangladesh is 4,096 km long.

West : In the north-west India shares a boundary mainly with Pakistan and the Arabian Sea on the west.

North-West : Afghanistan and Pakistan are situated on the north-west of India. India-Afghanistan border is only 80 km long whereas Indo-Pakistan border is 3,310 km long.

South : To the south of India are the Indian Ocean and Sri Lanka. The Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait separate India from Sri Lanka on the eastern side.

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Posted in: Geography of India